保罗·凯恩认领

OutofthecycleofonehundredpaintingsthatKanecreated,itisthisone,Cunnawa-bum,thatisusedasthefrontispieceinhisbookWanderingsofanArtistamongtheIndiansofNorthAmerica.AlthoughtheimageoftheyoungMetiswomanofPlainsCreeandBritishancestryfeaturedinthebookisonlyoneofnumerousportraitsinthepaintedcycle,asfrontispieceshebecomesasortofcovergirlforKane’slifeproject.WanderingsofanArtistrecountshowtheyoungwoman,whomKanemetatFortEdmonton,heldherswan’s-wingfan“inamostcoquettishmanner”andthatitwashercharmthatinspiredKane.NopreliminaryportraitsketchordrawingexistsofCunnawa-bum.Kanedevelopedhisgeneralconceptforafanportraitthroughseveralschematicdrawingsofafigureholdingafan,sometimeswithinanoval.Oneofthesedrawingsisaprofileofa“flathead”woman;nonearearticulatedwithfeaturesthatsuggestanindividual.InthepaintingtheawkwardlydisembodiedarmimplicitlysuggeststhatKane’sfocuswasthebeguilingfan,underlinedbyitstrompel’oeilnudgeintotheviewer’sspace.Thisstrangelygenericaspectoftheportrait,despiteitsconnectiontoanindividual,iscarriedoverintoitslifeasthechromolithographfrontispiecetoWanderingsofanArtistwhereitstitlebecomestheanonymousPortraitofaHalf-BreedCreeGirl.AccordingtotheethnologistDanielWilson(1816–1892),afriendofKane’swhoreviewedWanderingsofanArtist,theoilcapturestheracialdualityofthesitter;WilsonwritesthatKane’spainting“presentsanexceedinglyinterestingillustrationoftheblendingofthewhiteandIndianfeaturesinthefemaleHalf-breed.”Wilsoniscriticizingtheworkofthechromolithographer,VincentBrooks,whohad“sacrificedeverytraceofIndianfeaturesinhisdesiretoproducehisownidealofaprettyface,suchasmightequallywellhavebeencopiedforanordinarywaxdoll.”Fortheartist,ethnographer,andlithographer,respectively,theessenceofCunnawa-bum’scharmwaspresentedasafan,inheridentityasahalf-breed,andasawaxdoll.ItisperhapsinCunnawa-bum’sbestinterestthatmodernviewersshiftthefocustothemeaningofhername—“OneThatLooksattheStars”—asawaytosubvertthenineteenth-centurymalegazeandrecognizeherasempowered.

TheConstantSkyprojectsthequintessentialRomanticidealthatequatespristinenaturewith“primitiveman.”AnAboriginalwoman,TheConstantSky,sittingonananimalskin,leansagainstatreetrunk,herchildbyherside.Themassivetree,withitsintertwiningbranches,vines,andprotectiveleafcanopy,suggestsanancientandunspoiledlandscape.Itisanidylliclocale,whereamirror-likeriverandthemodestwaterfallsuggestthecalmandcomfortingsoundsofnaturethatreassureTheConstantSkyofherwayoflife.ForalltheassumptionsmadeduringKane’stimeabouttheAboriginalpeoplebeinga“vanishingrace,”onewondersifKane’simageismeanttobeanaffirmationofthepermanenceoftheAboriginalpresence.Seenfromanineteenth-centuryperspective,theearlymorninglightinthispaintingalludestothefuture,underscoringtheideaofcontinuitythatisimplicitinboththewoman’snameandthepresenceofthechild.Kanemayhavedrawnonseveraldifferentpersonalexperiencestocreatethispainting;heapparentlyreliedonsketchesoflandscapes,figures,andculturalobjectsfromdifferentregionsandtribes.UltimatelyKane’srandomborrowingfromhisownfieldsketchesismoot,ashisgoalwastotranscendtheparticularandcaptureanessentialmoraltruth.Kane’sArcadianlandscape,framedbyapainted,decorativearchofgold,offersameditationontheidealcommunionbetweenhumankindandnature,whichatthetimewasthoughttobemanifestinthelivesoftheAboriginalpeople.

PreviousresearchhasassumedthatKane’sworksonpaperweresketchedfromlife.However,thisoilonpaper,MedicinePipeStemDance,waslikelypaintedbyKaneaftertheevent,asastudyforthelateroilpainting.Itlackstheimmediacyofasketchdrawnfromlife.Kanemakesnoreferenceinhisfieldjournaltothepipestemdance;ifwearetobelievehisbookWanderingsofanArtistamongtheIndiansofNorthAmerica,theBlackfootceremonytookplaceintheafternoonandincludedKaneasoneoftheobserversinthecircleofseatedmen.(Hewasinvitedtotheceremony,asartist,to“addmagicalpowersinincreasingitsefficacy.”1)Thestudyspotlightsthetwodancers,andthevantagepointiselevated,givingamoreexpansiveviewofdancers,spectators,andlandscape.Kane’sdepictionofthepipestemssuggeststheywereinspiredbyhisdrawingsofindividualculturalobjectsratherthanbyexperience.InthispaintingKanehaschosentodepictapipestemfromtheveryenemynation(PlainsCree)thattheBlackfootwerepreparingtoengageinbattle.2ThisseeminginconsistencymaywellunderlineKane’sconstructedapproachtothiswork.TheoilpaintingbasedonthestudywasanearlycreationinKane’scycleofonehundredpaintings.Thecanvaswasoneofeight“Indianpictures”KaneexhibitedattheUpperCanadaProvincialExhibitionof1852inBrockville.OnepressaccountincludesalengthyentryonMedicinePipeStemDance,referringtothe“extracts,whichwesubjoinfromMrKane’sjournal”asawayto“fullyexplainthepictureandsuperstitionsattachedtotheceremonial.”3Theentryreadslikeadetailedethnologicalexplanation,unlikethecomparativelybriefaccountinWanderingsofanArtist.ThatKanedidnotmakeevenabriefreferenceinhisjournaltohisinvitationtothissacredevent,combinedwiththedetailedethnologicaldescriptioninthepressreview,suggeststhatMedicinePipeStemDance(boththestudyandtheoilpainting)mayrelymoreondescriptionsthatKanereadthanonhisownexperience.

TheCackabakahFalls1isasuperbexampleofKane’sembraceofthesublime.InportrayingKakabekaFalls,theartisthaschosenashissubjectoneofthenaturalwondersalongtheHudson’sBayCompany(HBC)voyageurroute.Hisdepictionofthesefallsasafearsomeforceofnatureisintendedtoinspireandoverwhelmtheviewer,whiletheforegroundwedgeoflandoffersastableviewatasafedistance.Anillustrationofanartistusingacameralucida,fromtheDictionnaireencyclopédiqueetbiographiquedel'industrieetdesartsindustriels(1882)KanewasbutapassengerwhentravellingwiththeHBCbrigades,andwhilethemenportaged,hewouldsketch.Inexecutinghisearlierdrawingofthisparticularview,KakabekaFalls,1846,Kaneappearstohavebeenaidedbyanopticalinstrument.Theprecisearticulationofoutlineanddetailsofthe“tower”inthemiddle,andtheheavierpenciltracingthefoliageandrocksintheforeground,suggestKaneusedadevicecalledacameralucida.Intranslatinghislinearrenditionintoanoilpainting,Kanecreatedaspectacularvisionofthesublime.Lightglancesoffthemassivesheetsoffallingwater,reflectsoffthehorizontalstriationsofthechert2rock,andvieswiththestormcloudforsupremacy.ThediminutiveAboriginalfiguresontheriverbankareatypicalRomanticdeviceusedtoprovidescaleandemphasizetheimmensityofthisnaturalwonder—and,byprojection,Kane’sownexperience.Kanemakesnomentionofthefallsbynameinhisfieldjournal,nordoesheindicatehisresponsetotheview;hesimplynotesthathemadesketchesoftwoportagesalongthislegofhisjourney.3ItisasthoughKanereliesonhisdrawingtoaccuratelyrecordhisexperienceandhispaintingtoemotionallyexpressit.